Human Resorce Mangement Essay Example

Human Resorce Mangement Essay The Changing Role of Human Resources Management According to Hollenbeck, Gerhart, and Wright, human resources management are the policies, practices, and systems that influence employees’ behavior, attitudes, and performance (2007, p. 2). The role of human resources management within businesses has been evolving since the 1950s. These changes have brought about a significant increase in competition along with the awareness that human resource management must play a larger part of the strategic role within every company (Tyson and Fell, 1995).The following paragraphs will discuss the changes that have taken place in human resources management due to transformations and trends in globalization technology, diversity, e-business, and ethics. Affects of Globalization, Technology, and E-Business Businesses around the world have not been able to escape the process of globalization and technology. This process has forced many businesses to turn to international markets to remain competitive. This means many new objectives for the human resources department.For example, the outsourcing of labor, training new employees globally, the possibility of new positions, and the creation of new global policies. However, along with these new objectives comes new challenges, such as trying to create a consistent corporate culture, creating a multicultural human resources team, and the potentially complicated responsibilities of multiple-currency payroll, multi-country dispersion, diverse jurisdictional tax legislation, and health care benefits and coverage (Bryant, 1997).Fortunately, these additional complications bring new technologies. We will write a custom essay sample on Human Resorce Mangement specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Human Resorce Mangement specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Human Resorce Mangement specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer New self service and online employee tools, more efficient recruiting options via the Internet, and more secure containment of personnel records are only a few of the new technologies. Globalization and technology has also produced e-learning and e-negotiations for offices overseas. Nowadays, a business meeting can be held between two different international companies with the use of videoconferencing; no travel is required.Important personnel documents and reports can be shared by the click of a mouse via e-mail. New technology has also created many more job opportunities for individuals with physical disabilities allowing them to become a part of the workforce. Changes in Diversity Globalization and international business creates a larger pool of diversity within companies. More communication and interaction is taking place between people of different cultures, who speak different languages, communicate differently, and have different beliefs.Diversity can bring more creativity and ideas to a business and its departments, improved marketing opportunities, and better recruitment opportunities. Human resources management will also be faced with diversity challenges. Radical changes in workforce demographics mean that organizations need to develop knowledge and understanding of how to manage a diverse workforce that includes large percentages of blacks, Hispanics, Asians, and women (Schuler and Walker, 1990).This means managers may be confronted with discrimination and prejudice complaints which in return can lead to more turnovers. There is also a potential for more hiring discriminations among management. Learning how to create a neutral corporate culture, implementing ongoing awareness trainings, and working to create a thriving diverse workplace are all key issues human resource managers should focus on. Ethics The topics of globalization, technology, and diversity discussed above all have affects on ethics.Human resources management are confronted with many more cases of right versus wrong. These cases can involve globalization and technology where employees have more confidential personnel information at their fingertips or access to bank accounts and transfers. Increases in diversity allows more issues to arise where a manager favors Caucasians over Hispanics because of personal prejudices. Sexual harassment doesn’t take place in only verbal form these days. Harassment can occur through email and text messages.The ever changing human resource function is now filled with more complex and intricate issues revolving around ethics which management must deal with on a daily basis. Conclusion While globalization, technology, e-business, and diversity bring more positive opportunities to any size business, but human resources management must have a more complete and well rounded strategic plan to deal with each facet successfully. To be successful, organizations will be required to make considerable investments in their HR capabilities (Oss, 2004).This does not only mean money, but also time and commitment. Embracing change and being more receptive to employees and their needs are also important issues for human resources. Happy employees bring more potential and growth to every company.

Weighing In Essay Essays

Weighing In Essay Essays Weighing In Essay Essay Weighing In Essay Essay In Essay Racism has repeatedly played a controversial role throughout the course of history. This is a topic fueled by the heated arguments of the parties on both ends of the matter, may it be the cry of the victim or defense of the offender. As described in the works of two members of ethnic minorities coping With the alienation they both faced in what is supposed to be the land of diversity, Froze Dumas The F Word, and Brent Staples Black Men and Public Space, racism is portrayed as a dark shadow cast upon those who may not me to conform to the norms of western culture to the typical American. Such stereotypes and predispositions should not hold the power to classify and simplify human beings to one single standard of a certain background, as one single Story or idea does not define an entire mass Of people. In Froze Dumas The F Word, she describes her life growing up as an Iranian in America. From the very beginning of her transition into western society, Dumas was exposed to the ugly world of racism at the tender age of seven, an idea almost too outlandish to even entertain. The idea that children t such a young age could feel the need to alienate someone due to unfamiliarity shows that indifference to foreign culture and background can begin at almost any age. She writes that her cousin was named Forbad, a respectable Iranian name meaning greatness, but in a land filled with Joeys and Mars, this was completely alien to his peers, resulting in his nickname Forehead. Similarly, her brother, Fairish, meaning he who enlightens became known as Farthest. A friend of Dumas sounded too similarly to an African American slur and her brothers name reminded those of a skin indention. These children earned themselves such vulgar names solely due to the fact that they were raised and named accordingly to their culture, something that should never be disrespected or looked down upon as abnormal just because it is uncommon. When she reached the age of twelve, Froze opted for an American middle name, understandable for a young girl bearing the pressure of her surroundings, yet unacceptable for her to feel pressured to do so in the first place. She explains that she regrets this decision as it only complicated her life in the long run, even though it seemed o be a quick fix to her problems at the time. She had always received incredulous glares or horribly executed pronunciations, many without even a hint of actual effort in attempting to properly address her, a sad but common occurrence for those who are not often exposed to foreign cultures. Dumas finally settled on the name Julie and even introduced herself to her next-door neighbor using her new name. Her brothers even made fun of her for wanting to Americanize herself, who then later became Fred and Sean. In college, she did away with Julie and went back to her old name, but found that applying for jobs was a more successful venture when she used her American name, interestingly enough. Once she got married, it was almost as if she was living a double life, with family calling her Froze and most friends referring to her as Julie. This prompted her to permanently go back to her original name, forcing herself to cope with the mispronunciations and comments, which she simply now finds humor in. It is a huge relief that Dumas ended up referring to herself by her original first name, as dont feel that she should have ever felt pressured into conforming to the standards of stern culture and trying to Americanize herself. The fact that simply changing her name from Froze to Julie on job applications is mind blowing, as it is clearly not her credentials or talents that are being considered, but her American name. I appreciate that Dumas was able to come to the realization that although her American name would often allow her more job interviews and less of an intense reaction in every day life, her original Iranian name was part of her struggle growing up as an immigrant in America and was a better telltale of her story than Julie would ever be. Rather than being another Joe or Mary, people would just have to adjust to her, not the other way around. Similar to Dumas struggle in America as an Iranian, Brent Staples Black Men and public Space details the struggle of being a black man in America. There are countless stereotypes implanted in the minds of Americans of the typical black person, aggressive, dishonest, ruthless, and overall ill intentioned. The first encounter with this racist outlook on blacks Staples had was in a wealthier area of downbeat Chicago, who began to appear irksome and soon after proceeded to run from the author, who had done nothing intentionally to provoke fear in her. I agree that women should always place their safety as their first priority and should remove themselves from any situation in which they find themselves uncomfortable or at risk, but if blacks and whites cant manage to walk the same streets without one race thinking the other is going to attack at any given moment due to the misconceptions floating around in their heads, then America really isnt a land of diversity. It then becomes a land of hierarchy. As he says, Staples is too scared to even wield a knife at a chicken, let alone wield a knife at another human being, but by the color of his skin and appearance, one would never know this. Being perceived as dangerous, he writes, is a hazard in itself, and could easily land him in the back of a police car simply due to the stereotypes of the black man. Staples understands that women are vulnerable in situations involving street crime, and that blacks have a tendency to be the offenders in such situations, yet this is no excuse for the complete isolation teen blacks and whites that occurs on an everyday basis. He recalls a fascinating incident in which police attempted to arrest a black journalist whom they mistook for the murderer, further proving that many will forever have these misconceptions that almost all blacks are violent by nature. On late nights now, Staples finds himself whistling classical music, as he explains that many do not seem to think that a typical, violent black man would ever be whistling Beethoven or Vivaldi, which is one of the saddest parts of this story. It is almost disgusting to me that blacks and minorities in general feel he need to prove themselves to American society by doing White things. It is often understandably easier to do so and conform to western ways, but it is never necessary because one should not ever be ashamed of their background. No single story or stereotype or standard defines a human being. That persons actions, impact on the world, and the lives they touch are what define them. America, the land of the free and the home of the brave, is often an image of hopes and dreams and opportunity for those who wish to create better lives for themselves, yet the stereotypes people tend to hold of each racial aground impede any sort of progress in continuing to paint America as this beacon of hope. Racism not only simplifies humans to one single story, but almost dehumidifies a person, as well, looking past their traits and qualities and defining them as where they come from and what their culture is. It is necessary to learn that what society may deem normal to us is not necessarily normal to others, and rather than one party adapt to the other or furthermore alienate one another, we must begin to respect and not reject the diversity which surrounds us.

International Trade Operations in US Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

International Trade Operations in US - Essay Example According to the study findings international buyers who do not have US dollars as their local currency would have to go through the cumbersome process of having to convert their currencies to US dollars whenever they want to do business with you. The excesses in the procedure may just be one reason that someone may prefer other competitors to you. Again, the differences in exchange rate between the local currencies of international buyers and the US dollars will cause price flatuations. It is very likely that the price of good for each particular day will have to change because of changes in exchange rate. This, according to Gibbons creates currency swing, where by the customer may have to build in a 10-15% "adverse currency swing" factor. Conversely, quoting the US dollars may be very desirable when dealing with buyers who already deal in US dollars. It is common k knowledge that a lot of buyers around the world today are into the use of the US dollars. This is because it ensures u niformity in quantum price of goods and products. Again, quoting in US dollars very advisable for smaller companies with limited human resource as Gibbons, notes that â€Å"you may not have the ability to assume the currency risk, the currency exchange costs and the effort needed to run pricing in local currency.† Regarding quotation of prices in local currencies, once prices are quoted in local currencies and not in US dollars for international buyers, whose local currencies are not the US dollars would not have to create any price hedge to cater for the prices of goods. This is a major advantage for dealing with international buyers. This is because the duty of having to convert prices into US dollars and also having to go through the exchange processes, which sometimes attracts extra cost from banks would all be avoided. In would be observed that because pricing in US dollars creates price fluctuations, local buyers are often forced to hedge for the price of goods so that they will not have to be changing their expenditures so often. The converse demerit with pricing in local currency is that there would have to be a different price of same goods when they move from one country to the other. In this case, it is likely that by the time all sales are completed and the seller converts his earnings back to a common currency, there may be some little price falls because of the differences in US dollar rates in different countries (Colacito and Croce, 2011). Rate parity theory and how it is used to predict future exchange rates According to Forex Karma (2010), â€Å"Interest Rate Parity (IPR) theory is used to analyze the relationship between at the spot rate and a corresponding forward (future) rate of currencies.† The theory operates on a number of principles that makes it possible to predict future exchange rates. First, Picardo (2012) writes that â€Å"the basic premise of interest rate parity is that hedged returns from investing in different currencies should be the same, regardless of the level of their interest rates.† This means that future predictions of exchange rate can be made if returns on rate hedging remain constant. This is because in such as situation, both the exchange rate and interest rate do not have any influence on one another. The second has to do with the quote rates of interest rate and currency rates. This is because

Economy and Telecommunication Networks Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Economy and Telecommunication Networks - Essay Example TDF has its disadvantages too in that division of labour leads to greater interdependency thus developed countries like the US allow and favor free flow of information to ensure management and coordination of other countries (Kamalipour, 2007). Therefore, TDF leads to developed countries controling the developing countries because of heir overreliability to their countries. Secondly according to Sawhney, ‘industrielaizedcountries take a disappropiate share of the additional wealth produced by specialization and leave the ordinary workers poorly compensated for their contribution’ (Sawhney, 1998). Lastly, TDF also leadsds to developed countries using it as a means to challenge local authority in third world countries. The most interesting issue in this book is the division of labour. This is issue is most interseting because in my view, this is where it all began. This is root cause of telecomunications data flow and other technologies. It is amazing how in the past business people could achieve produciton succesfully while using all locally available raw materials and complete a product from scratches. It is also pitiable that products that could be easily transported were only light high value goods like silk, which furthermore could only be afforded by the rich. Indeed division of labour has changed the world in that common people can affrod foreign producst . Moreover, division of labour has increased production rate, and enhanced specialization which has further led to quality due to experience, while also cutting on

Self Confidence And Leadership

Self Confidence And Leadership Purpose The purpose of this study is to test empirically whether a relationship exists between self confidence and leadership, with self efficacy as a mediator. This effect is studied with respect to gender differences among the sample population. Design/methodology/approach An online questionnaire was administered to students of XLRI, Jamshedpur. The questionnaire measured the students on various parameters like self confidence, self efficacy, and leadership quality. Gender differences were also recorded for the same. Findings There is a significant relation between self confidence and leadership of an individual, with self efficacy fully mediating this relationship. Also, it was seen that gender plays an important role in defining the leadership among management students. Research limitations/implications Only management students of a B-school were taken as sample. Also, this study administered a structured questionnaire with cross-sectional design. Future research is required on various other parameters that effect leadership quality of an individual. Practical implications The research is carried on management students. Hence, it is expected to act as a guide for organisations in determining the effectiveness of future managers with respect to co-relation between levels of self confidence and their display of leadership behaviour. Originality/value This paper studies the direct effect of self confidence and indirect effect through self efficacy on leadership quality among students of a B-school and how gender differences affects this relationship model. This model, though earlier studied in parts will now be researched upon in totality. Keywords Self confidence, Self efficacy, Leadership, Gender, XLRI, Jamshedpur, India Paper type Research Paper Introduction Leadership has become an important determinant managerial ability. Leadership has been defined as the ability to execute, organize, communicate, motivate and inspire. Several approaches have been proposed for the assessment of leadership ability. These range from specific theories of leadership, such as trait theory, to specific kinds of leadership, such as transformational leadership, to specific dimensions, such as goal setting. However, lately, the best assessment of leadership is on the ability to inspire others through positive exemplary behaviour and through empathetic communication. As such the best description of leadership ability might comprise ability to: Exercise discipline over oneself, demonstrate clarity of thought of life, and possess a well rounded worldview and philosophy on life that combines personal mastery and public interdependence in a benign, non-manipulative way. Display compassion from others point of view, and to truly empathize with others and know their motivations, concerns and preconceptions. Communicate effectively on the basis of an accurate assessment of others perspective and their various levels of drives and motivation. That is, to construct the most appropriate message, and encode and deliver it through language and otherwise in the best way possible so that the recipient has thorough understanding of the idea being communicated. Draw from ones clarity of thought powers of empathy and freedom from vanity so as to assess the situation around him accurately, and to draw a vision of a lofty but attainable future which he considers to be desirable and beneficial to the largest number of people. To inspire large numbers of people towards a common, highly meaningful and motivating goal; guiding and showing them how it is achievable, while facilitating communication at every stage To maintain utmost consideration for, and a personal bond with, the people for and with whom he is working in the process elevating them and making leaders out of them in turn. The above characteristics what a leader is supposed to achieve. However these characteristics are difficult to measure over a short period of time, so alternative methods are use. One such method has been used in this study. Organizations are constantly on the lookout for executives who display these behaviours. As such they are constantly on the lookout for methods which can help predict the leadership abilities of prospective members of the organization. Self confidence is one such measure of leadership abilities (Kaplan, 1986; Popper and Mayseless, 2007). It is considered to be one of the fundamental building blocks of leadership ability and indispensible to leadership success. A person with a high level of faith in himself or herself is likely to be a better executor and motivator. Only a high degree of self confidence can enable a person to make the effort and the choices that go into developing leadership ability. A related trait that is crucial to leadership is self efficacy. The ability to handle adverse situations by taking charge of situations has been found to be determinant of leadership in situations requiring change. This is important because ability to lead positively, empathetically and ethically while facing tough competitive situations requires a belief that one can successfully negotiate such situations without compromising. Furthermore, gender has been an area of focus in study of leadership styles. Studies have pointed out that gender is related to leadership style and performance on various leadership dimensions. Given that leadership abilities of women are expected to draw from somewhat different strengths than men, it can be expected to affect the relationship between self confidence, self efficacy and leadership. Hence we see that there is a need to study the mediating role of self-efficacy in the relationship between self confidence and leadership. Furthermore, given the significant differences found in leadership parameters of men and women, it is important to see how the strength of the relationship between self confidence and leadership abilities is affected by gender. Hence in this study, we seek to study the mediation effect of self-efficacy on the relationship between self confidence and leadership with gender as the moderating variable. Research background and hypotheses Efforts to pinpoint the influences on leadership skills have focussed, for the greater part of the twentieth century, on individual factors such as personality traits and behavioural attributes. In a 1948 literature review, over a 100 studies on trait approach were reviewed and it was found that traits like interpersonal skills, initiative, intelligence and integrity were consistent with leadership capabilities (Daft, 2005). Studies on individual traits have included research on various traits such as honesty, interpersonal skills, initiative etc. Studies have also talked about traits like self-confidence and self-efficacy in relation to leadership (Popper and Mayseless, 2007; Hautala, 2005). This study carries forward these ideas while also attempting to add to knowledge of leadership by studying factors which lead to leadership as well as the way in which other factors moderate this relationship. Self-confidence Self-confidence is a personality trait. One of the most widely accepted definitions of it comes through the Trait Theory of Leadership wherein it is considered one of the most important personality traits used to identify potential leaders (Daft, 2005). If we were to take a more contemporary definition of self-confidence, Merriam-Webster Online defines it as confidence in oneself and in ones powers and abilities. Although there is no singular definition of self-confidence as a construct, a lot of research has been done on the subject and various authors have defined it in different ways. For instance, the reasons for development of self-confidence in an individual have been identified by various authors. Self-confidence may result from a persons belief in whether he or she can performs a task a belief derived from whether or not they succeeded in performing the task in the past (Burns, 1993). On the other hand, self-confidence has also been said to develop in two phases. First, you examine whether you are capable of handling, or have adequate information about, a task and then based on this analysis you decide whether you can handle the task in the present context or situation (Koriat et al, 1980). Self-confidence has most often been linked with the concept of self-efficacy and the two terms are often used interchangeably. Apart from gaining experiential knowledge, a persons self-confidence may also increase through appropriate motivational mechanisms or through reinforcement behaviours (Bandura, 1977). The components of self-confidence have also been studied and they can be divided into internal and external components, ranging from self-love for the former to assertiveness for the latter (Lindenfield, 1995). There are also certain general behavioural indications, which have been linked to self-confidence as components or attributes, viz. a persons air of assurance and the fact that his entry or exit from a space is considered to be of note (Goleman, 1998) In an analysis of self-confidence as a concept, we can find those attributes, which are most representative of self-confidence as a stand-alone concept. These attributes include belief in positive achievements, persistence and self-awareness all of which our questionnaire attempted to capture (White, 2009). Personal characteristics such as willingness to take initiative, effectiveness, self-esteem etc. have also been variously linked to self-confidence (Kacmar and Young, 1998; Pool and Sewell, 2007). Self-confidence measures have, for the most part, continued to measure the attributes mentioned above. However, some new scales to measure it have been developed in recent years, mostly for use in specific professions. The Self-confidence Attitude Attribute Scale was developed to measure the ability of students as well as the amount of work they are willing to perform in order to succeed (Nokelainen et al, 2007). A new measure, the Perceived Self-confidence Scale was also developed for n urses in order to gauge the correlation between willingness to take up managed care and perceived self-confidence (Hayes, 2003) Self-efficacy Self-efficacy is also a construct related to personality and was first developed as part of a study on behavioural change (Bandura, 1977). It was initially defined in terms of an element which helps in development of learning abilities, especially for social or cognitive skills. The concept gained currency over the years and may now be defined as the conviction that one can act in accordance with certain predetermined norms and that such actions will lead to the successful achievement of objectives (Ormrod, 1999). It can also be defined as the belief that our actions can have a modifying effect on the environment and, hence, bring about changes or achieve goals (Steinberg, 1998). Elsewhere self-efficacy, especially among students has been examined and has been described as being capable of imagining oneself achieving a goal completely or as far as one desired to achieve it (Smalley, 1998). It has also been described as, simultaneously, an influence on and a result of socio-cultural n orms and ethnic background (Pajares, 2002). As mentioned above, a similarity of concepts has often led to self-efficacy being used interchangeably with self-confidence. This is also true in the case of efficacy, self-esteem and self-concept. Efforts to distinguish efficacy from self-efficacy have focussed on the fact that efficacy represents actual ability whereas self-efficacy represents a belief in ones ability to accomplish a goal in a designated manner (Sue et al, 2005). The sources which lead to self-efficacy as well as the factors which impact it have been divided under four broad headings learning derived from experiencing something in the past; learning from or comparing oneself with others; persuasion from social relations or even institutions and finally, our reactions to the physiological changes within us during specific situations (Bandura, 1977). Self-efficacy also has certain consequences on behaviour. For example it leads to greater effort and increased focus on ach ievement of goals (Schunk, 1990). It may also make one more competent in generating enthusiasm and motivation for a task (Gonzalez et al, 1990). On the other hand, low self-efficacy could also lead to the reverse, i.e. low competence due to lack of belief in oneself (Pajares, 2002). Self-efficacy, apart from being linked to the above-mentioned constructs (with which it is frequently interchanged), also has an impact on the way we think and act, our thought patterns and behaviour (Bandura, 1977). In order to define self-efficacy or to apply it to their research, theorists and researchers began to devise new ways to describe and measure the construct of self-efficacy. Initially self-efficacy was primarily measured on the General Self-Efficacy Scale (Scherer et al, 1982). However, more recently, apart from the universally accepted scales such as the Generalised Self-Efficacy Scale (Jerusalem and Schwarzer, 1995), other scales have been developed, such as the Scale of Perceived Social S elf-Efficacy (Betz and Smith, 2000). The latter was developed to measure self-efficacy expectations in the context of actions taken or behaviour demonstrated in social situations. There were six sub-factors to self-efficacy, in this scale, and they included performance in public situations as well as social assertiveness. These scales have also been modified according to the needs of the research (Matsushima and Shiomi, 2003). Leadership Leadership has been identified in various forms over the years. It has alternately been considered a combination of traits, of behaviours, of contingency actions etc. It can be defined as the process by which an individual encourages others, or works with others, to achieve certain shared goals (Chemers, 2002). Over time this definition has become more expansive and now includes the interrelationship between the leader and his followers. Leadership as a construct has evolved over time and this evolution can be divided into six broad types of leadership theories (Daft, 2005). The Great Man Theory of leadership defined it as inherent ability which set apart one man from the rest and he was recognised as a leader while the Trait Theory, which was in currency for nearly half a century, tried to identify those traits which can be influencers or predictors of leadership ability (Robbins, 2008). Other theories have included study of leadership behaviours, leaderships impact on followers, le adership actions to be taken in emergency, interrelationship between leadership and change etc. (Yukl, 1981). ). Leadership or leadership quality (which has been used as a construct in our survey and our research) has also been defined in terms of the people orientation and task orientation of individuals (Hemphill and Coons, 1957; Likert, 1979; Blake and Mouton, 1985). The reasons for leadership definitions being focussed on these two dimensions are the importance of both to the organisation as well as the fact that the presence of both, in an effective leader, is necessary. Irrespective of whether the two orientations are displayed simultaneously or at different situations, it is clear that extensive research has determined them to be present in successful and admired leaders (Fleishman and Harris, 1962). The various constructs which have been related to leadership over time include emotional intelligence and social intelligence (Goleman and Boyatzis, 2008), integrity and self-con fidence (Trait Theory) and other more elusive constructs such as charisma (Influence Theories). There has been a great deal of empirical evidence over the years to suggest that leadership is affected by self-confidence (Bass, 1985; Popper, 2004 etc.) and also by self-efficacy (Bandura, 1977; Paglis and Green, 2002 etc.). Various measures have been developed over the years to capture the elusive and ever-changing construct of leadership. Some of the scales developed in the last decade included the Revised Self-leadership Scale (Houghton and Neck, 2002), revisions to existing scales on Leadership Scale for Sport and Athlete Satisfaction Questionnaire (Nazarudin et al, 2009), etc. Self-confidence and Leadership From the literature which was reviewed, it was clear that self-confidence was an important part of an individuals personality and, hence, should be an important factor in the development of leadership in him. But, first it needed to be proved that personality has an effect on development of leadership or on demonstration of leadership behaviour. The study of relationship between leadership and personality has found significant interdependence between the two, with self-confidence being an important element of a leaders personality (Hautala, 2005). In one such study personality was divided into four clusters and it was proved that certain types of personality demonstrated greater leadership behaviour (Church and Waclawski, 1998). However, in order to relate the constructs of self-confidence and leadership, more research has been conducted, both empirical and conceptual. While studying transformational leadership through a survey feedback session, it was discovered that one of the important personality components, for those who scored high on leadership was self-confidence (Bass and Riggio, 2006). Similarly a study on the building-blocks of leadership development, has also shown that self-confidence was the most evident variable when it came to determining ability to lead others (Popper and Mayseless, 2007). When it comes to leadership in a business environment, there is ample research to suggest that business leadership is also dependent, to a great extent, on self-confidence. For instance, there has been research on managerial self-confidence and organisational change. The study attempts to formulate a new concept of self-confidence, which can lead to better managerial performance in terms of leading an orga nisation towards change (Bowman, 1999). The current economic environment requires a new set of business leaders with new ideas and a confident leader as well as earning confidence through respect is an important means of achieving success (Darling and Nurmi, 1995). A profiling tool on public sector managers had also discovered a lack of leadership confidence among them, which affected their ability to provide inspiration and support to subordinates and colleagues (Women in Management Review, 2007). Entrepreneurship can intuitively be considered a direct firm of leadership and studies have demonstrated that among MBA students (our sample), higher self-confidence can be statistically correlated with higher levels of entrepreneurship-orientation (Koh, 1996; Turker and Selcuk, 2009). A study on communication in groups has also shown how self-confidence is essential for improved communication (Education + Training Journal, 1960). For prospective managers it, therefore, becomes necessary to develop self-confidence as a means to developing leadership and even communication skills. Self-confidence and self-efficacy As mentioned earlier, self-confidence and self-efficacy are often used interchangeably, primarily due to the similarity of the constructs, which are both dependent on a sense of self-belief. While self-confidence is the belief in ones abilities, self-efficacy is the belief that one is capable of performing a certain task in an expected manner. Studies on either of these constructs tend to focus on the other as well. In a conceptual study on use of these constructs for therapy, self-confidence was advocated for the common man whereas self-efficacy was recommended for use in (Ulmer, 1998). The study felt that self-efficacy had more empirical support as a construct and, hence, self-confidence could be considered a sort of sub-set of self-efficacy, whereby, higher self-confidence would imply higher self-efficacy. The relationship between the two, with self-efficacy playing an important mediating role between self-confidence and effective performance, has also been empirically validated b y another study (Orpen, 1999). Not only are the two concepts interrelated but they can also be used a substitutes for each other for example self-efficacy can be seen as a private form of shoring up faith in oneself, while self-confidence can be seen as the external image we need to present to society in order to succeed It has been suggested that self-confidence can be either a trait or something that is specific to certain situations (Pool and Sewell, 2007). There have also been attempts to redefine these personality traits as contextual concepts so that it would easier to measure them and also to work towards developing them in individuals. It would also be easier to map the exact relation between the two, i.e. how the increase in one leads to increase in the other (Pool and Sewell, 2007). Most attempts at measuring one or the other have culminated in both being measured as a factor of the other. Confidence has been included as one of the six dimensions on the Occupational Self- efficacy Scale (Pethe et al, 1999). Similarly, a study on the Israeli military used the construct of self-confidence as a combination of 3 variables, one of which was self efficacy (Popper et al, 2004). Variants of the constructs have also been found to be related to each other. For example, Social Self-efficacy has been proved to have a high correlation with Social Confidence (Betz and Smith, 2000). Thus, we may say that an increase in self-confidence or high levels of self-confidence is mirrored by correspondingly high levels of self-efficacy. Self-efficacy and leadership It has been seen that high level of self efficacy makes a person better suited for leadership role than a person with a low level of self efficacy. Through the Social Learning Theory, it was demonstrated that leadership development increases with high levels of self-efficacy (Bandura, 1977). Leadership involves being committed to the organisation you work for and self-efficacy at the workplace plays an important role in increasing this commitment (Rastogi and Rathi, 2009). A construct called Leadership Self-Efficacy (LSE) was also designed and the relationship, between LSE and an increase in leadership behaviours, was empirically validated (Green and Paglis, 2002). Studies have not only related individual self-efficacy and leadership but have also shown how increase in a leaders self-efficacy, so far as it pertains to his leadership abilities and job performance, have a positive effect on self-efficacy of the team or group that is being led (Sanchez and Villanueva, 2007). Self-effica cy is also necessary for achievement of stated objectives and the construct has been found meaningful for developing better performances in an organisational setting (Appelbaum and Hare, 1996). Other research has also tried to establish a correlation between self-efficacy at work and the personal traits which can be considered essential for leadership (Schyns and Sczesny, 2010). Career success which could be defined as being able to reach a level of influential leadership is also positively affected by self-efficacy (Ballout, 2009). There has also been an interest in transformational leadership and its relation to self-efficacy for leaders, both male and female (Sanders and Schyns, 2005). For those working in expatriate roles or leading global organisations, self-efficacy has been found to be an important criterion for success (Ang and Dyne, 2006). Self-efficacy also leads to greater job involvement, a prerequisite for effective leadership (Lin et al, 2009). The ability to lead new companies or begin a new venture has been found to be positively affected by high self-efficacy (Alvarez et al, 2006). Self-confidence, self-efficacy and leadership Based on the discussion above, we can say that there is a positive relationship between self-confidence and leadership, self-confidence and self-efficacy and self-efficacy and leadership. But in order to study the relationship between self-confidence and leadership, with self-efficacy as a mediator, further research was involved. The Social Learning Theory was one of the first in establishing a correlation between these three constructs since it showed self-confidence to be an important element of self-efficacy while also establishing its relation with leadership development (Bandura, 1977). Any comprehensive study of leadership as a concept tends to include self-confidence and self-efficacy as two of the most important factors in possessing or developing leadership skills (Conger et al, 1988). Self-confidence and self-efficacy have also been found to influence the thought patterns or actions which lead to leadership development (Popper, 2004). Both self-efficacy and self-efficacy ha ve been shown to have an impact on a persons job capabilities and, hence, ultimately his leadership capabilities as well (Pool and Sewell, 2007). Self-confidence and self-efficacy have also been independently correlated to entrepreneurial leadership abilities and, considering the correlation between the two constructs, one can say that an increase in one would lead to an increase in the other and finally to an increase in leadership abilities (Turker et al, 2008; Alvarez et al, 2006). Attempts to develop future leaders have also shown that increasing self-efficacy and motivating employees to have greater self-confidence are integral to the process (Popper and Lipshitz, 1993). From empirical and theoretical research, the two constructs of self-confidence and self-efficacy have been shown to be related conceptually, since both are dependent on self-belief to a great extent. If we posit that self-confidence has a positive correlation with leadership, then an increase in one should lead to a corresponding increase in the other. However, since self-confidence is related to self-efficacy and self-efficacy is related to leadership, any increase in self-confidence will lead to increase in self-efficacy, which in turn would increase leadership ability. Genders Moderating Role on the Model The definition of gender includes the practices, beliefs and norms, internalised by men and women, with reference to their roles in society. Thus, gender influences individual decision making according to societal expectations. As a sociological entity, it also affects the development of personality and, hence, of traits such as self-confidence and self-efficacy. There has been significant research on how gender affects leadership. The possibility of women attaining leadership roles has been studied with reference to whether a glass ceiling exists and how evaluation of (and by) either gender tends to have an element of bias (Weyer, 2007). There is research to suggest that the types of roles or leadership positions offered to women are often significantly different compared to men (Lantz and Maryland, 2008). The differences in leadership orientation or style, between men and women, have also been studied to identify the varying ways in which they handle change and transformation (Yane z and Moreno, 2008). Leadership effectiveness has been analysed to show that gender differences exist (Chow, 2005). Not only does gender affect leadership but it also has an impact on various abilities and competencies which affect leadership. Studies have shown that women tend to score higher on emotional intelligence, which is generally identified with leadership (Bauch and Rucinski, 2006). There is also a significant difference in the extent to which men and women possess these success-predicting attributes (Hopkins and Bilimoria, 2008). In a study, which is of particular interest to this research, entrepreneurship skills (linked to leadership in the discussion above) were found to be influenced by levels of self-confidence. The self-confidence levels for men and women were qualitatively proved to be different, hampering women in their quest for leadership development and success. Thus, we can say that gender has an influence on the relationship between self-confidence and leader ship. Based on the discussion above, the following hypotheses are proposed: H1. Self-confidence has an impact on leadership quality. H2. Self-confidence has a positive impact on self-efficacy. H3. Self-efficacy has an impact on leadership quality. H4. Self-confidence has an impact on leadership quality by increasing self- efficacy. H5. Gender has an impact on the relationship between self-confidence and leadership quality. Research Model Self-Confidence Self Efficacy Leadership Gender Methods Sample The survey was administered to management students of XLRI of batch 2008-10 and 2009-11. There are total 420 students (294 males and 126 females), out of which 68.03% of the students chose to participate. The response consisted of 127 males and 73 females. Using stratified sampling, 102 males and 58 females were chosen using random number generator. The average age of the sample is around 25 years. The questionnaire was a self-administered questionnaire and it was sent to students using internet. Measure The constructs used here were measured using Likert and Likert-type scale with different range used for different constructs. Leadership quality It is measured using 5-point Likert type scale developed by. A sample item is The more challenging a task is, the more I enjoy it. Self confidence it is measured using 5-point Likert scale developed by Sherer et als (1982). A sample item is I avoid facing difficulties. Self efficacy it is measured on a 4-point Likert type scale using Schwarzer and Jerusalems General Perceived Self-Efficacy Scale (Schwarzer and Jerusalems, 2010). A sample item is If I am in trouble, I can usually think of a solution. Also, gender has been used as a moderator which is a dichotomous variable asking if the respondent is a male or a female. Analysis For the analysis, different methods have been used for different purposes. For measuring the reliability of various constructs the Cronbachs alpha has to be calculated for all the constructs defined in the model. For proving H1, H2 and H3 we are using linear regression model to find out the significance of relationship between the constructs of Self confidence, self-efficacy and Leadership Quality. In order to evaluate the effect of mediator we use the mediator model with multiple regression analysis or MRA which consists of four sequential steps to find out the significance of mediation and the effect of mediation. This analysis supports H4. For evaluating the effect of gender as the moderator, we first do regression analysis between the predictor and the consequent while including only the male gender in the analysis and then we do the same analysis using the female gender. This is done to find out whether gender has a significant role to play on how self-confidence affects leaders hip quality in a person. We use SPSS software to carry out our analysis. Results Reliability: In order to test the consistency of a construct, Cronbachs alpha is calculated. Following are the results for the same. According to some professionals, as rule of thumb, if value of alpha is 0.7 or higher, the construct is considered as reliable. Construct Cronbach alpha Reliability Leadership Quality 0.847 Yes Self Confidence 0.681 Yes Self Efficacy 0.889 Yes Effect of Self confidence on Leadership Quality: This

Qualitative, quantitative, and outcomes research Essay

1. What are the main differences among qualitative, quantitative, and outcomes research? Under what circumstances is each type of research most appropriate? Support your answers with specific examples. Qualitative research is used to give meaning to life experiences and conditions. It’s an individual approach and logical. It is â€Å"interpretive, humanistic, and naturalistic and is concerned with understanding the meaning of social interactions by those involved†(Burns & Grove, 2011). Qualitative research is most appropriate when conducting research to promote understanding of human experiences and circumstances and develop theories that describe these experiences. Qualitative research seems to be an effective method of investigating human emotional responses. An example would be interviewing 100 elderly patients to find out what their main health concerns are. Quantitative research â€Å"is a formal, objective, systematic process in which numerical data are used to obtain information about the world†(Burns & Grove, 2011). Quantitative data is any data that is in numerical form such as statistics, percentages, etc. An example of this would be determining the rate of a DVT in post-op patients. Outcomes research focuses on the outcomes of care for the patient. It requires four areas to examine including: patient responses to nursing care, improvements in physical functions, healthcare financial service outcomes, and patient’s overall satisfaction with staff, nursing care and services. This research is most appropriate when doing research on improving quality of care(Burns & Grove, 2011). An example would be doing research on what ice pack is most effective, easy for the patient to use and still cost effective. Burns, N., & Grove, S. K. (2011). Understanding nursing research: Building an evidence-based practice (5th ed.). St. Louis, MO: Saunders Elsevier.

Zero Tolerance Policy

The zero tolerance policy strives to reduce violence in schools and make schools a safer place for students. Anne Atkinson, a member of the Virginia Board of Education defines zero tolerance as a â€Å"policy that mandates predetermined consequences or punishments for specified offenses. † The policy first became effective in 1989, but grew most rapidly in 1994 when the Gun- Free Schools Act was passed (1). There are many controversies about the zero tolerance policy including whether or not the policy is effective in reducing violence in schools, whether or not schools are trying to handle disciplinary actions in a fair manner, and whether or not all students are treated equally when punishments are determined. While many supporters, such as school administration, believe that the zero tolerance policy is necessary in schools, those who oppose the policy, such as parents, believe that the policy is unfair and ineffective in schools. Those who support the zero tolerance policy believe that the policy is effective in reducing violence in school. Atkinson argues that â€Å"strict policies are needed to send a clear message and are designed to protect students† (2). Agreeing with Atkinson, Richard Curwin and Allen Mendler, scholars on the zero tolerance policy, believe that by using the zero tolerance policies, it is evident to students that aggressive behavior is unacceptable. By allowing the students to realize that misbehavior will not be tolerated, students become more likely to obey the rules and cooperate with schools (1). According to the National Center for Children Exposed to Violence (NCCEV), 17. 1% of students carried weapons at school and 71% of elementary and secondary schools have experienced at least one violent crime by a student. A nationwide survey suggested that 15% of students have been involved in a physical fight on school grounds. By using the zero tolerance policy, those students who are violent in school are expelled or suspended, resulting in schools becoming a safer environment for students and teachers (3). Although defenders of the zero tolerance policy agree that they policies are effective, those who oppose the policy do not believe that the policies are effective in reducing school violence. People who are against the zero tolerance policy agree that the policy is ineffective in reducing school violence. Members of the American Psychological Association (APA), the largest scientific and professional organization representing psychology in the United States, agree that schools are no safer and more effective in teaching discipline that before the zero tolerance policy in the 1980s. They also agree that school violence is not out of control, so zero tolerance policies are not necessary (1). Russell Skiba, chairman of the Indiana Education Policy Center and Reece Peterson, a scholar on the zero tolerance policy, conducted statistics that show â€Å"violent crimes occurred at an annual rate of fifty-three per one hundred thousand students. Because evidence shows that violence rates are not out of control, critics argue that there are many other alternatives that can be used to promote a safer environment for students and teachers (2). According to the National Association of School Psychologists (NASP), some alternatives that reduce violence in schools include a prevention curriculum, help from school workers, counselors, and psychologists, and parental/family involvement (3). Whether the policy is effective or ineffective is only one aspect of the controversy; there are many other controversies that occur within the policy. Whether schools are handling disciplinary action in a fair manner is a main controversy when discussing the zero tolerance policy. Russell Skiba believes that the way in which schools punish students is fair. He thinks that rash punishments improve overall student behavior and discipline. Skiba acknowledges the fact that harsh disciplinary actions are determined by the degree of the student’s violent actions (29). While some people agree that schools are just when using the zero tolerance policy, others disagree and believe that schools are extremely unfair. Those who oppose the zero tolerance policy believe that the way in which schools use the zero tolerance policy to punish students is very rash and unfair. Those against the zero tolerance policy, such as Skiba, believe that rash suspensions and expulsions, rather than improving student behavior, forces students to misbehave more frequently. He also believes that rash suspensions and expulsions lead to an increased number of school dropouts and failure to graduate on time (28). A personal example of zero tolerance proves schools to be rash and unfair when punishing students. My ten-year-old cousin went to a public school where he was a part of the minority group. He found a pocketknife at home and thought it was the coolest thing he had ever seen. Being an immature, unknowing child, my cousin brought the pocketknife to school to show his friends, not intending on using it in any dangerous way possible. As he took the knife out of his pocket to show is closest friends, a teacher spotted him and immediately jerked him away from his friends and into the principal’s office. The principal, being the one to decide punishment, automatically expelled my ten-year-old cousin for bringing a pocketknife to school, even though he did not harming anyone or anything with the knife. Because my cousin was expelled from school, he is no longer in school this year and now has to repeat the grade. This is a perfect example of how the zero tolerance policy leads to school dropout and failure to graduate on time. Not only is the process of punishment a controversy, but whether or not racism is used to punish is also an issue concerning the zero tolerance policy. An important controversy when debating on the zero tolerance policy is whether or not racism is involved when schools are punishing students. Russell Skiba and Allen Mendler argue that schools are completely just and equal when determining punishments for violence in schools. They agree that no matter race, ethnicity, language, or abilities, if you portray a violent action, rash punishments will result (1). Although supporters agree that the policy treats all people equal, those who oppose the policy agree that racism occurs when punishing students using the zero tolerance policy. According to those that oppose the policy, zero tolerance is an unjust policy that does not treat all students equally. The American Psychological Association (APA) agrees that the disproportionate discipline of students of color is and continues to be a concern when discussing the zero tolerance policy. They believe that most expulsions and suspensions are punishments that result from African Americans or Latinos that are violent in schools. Another target group of schools that use the zero tolerance policy are those people with disabilities, especially with emotional and behavioral disorders (2). There are many important controversies dealing with the zero tolerance policy, and many people either support the controversy or are opposed to the controversy. Zero tolerance attempts to prevent violence in schools and create a safer environment for the school community. It is viewed as a policy that that tries to teach students wrong from right, and gives students a sense of discipline. Although some believe that the policy has good intentions, there are many controversies that aroused, causing many debates that challenge the effectiveness of the policy. While many people who believe that the policy creates a safer environment for students and teachers support the zero tolerance policy, there are many who oppose the zero tolerance policy, arguing that it is unfair and ineffective in reducing violence in schools.